Einstein's Brain

In his last years of life, Albert Einstein knew he was ill and refused operations that would save his life. He made his wishes clear: "I want to be cremated so people won't come to worship at my bones" [source: Paterniti]. Einstein died on April 18, 1955, at the age of 76 of a ruptured abdominal aortic aneurism, and he got his wish as far as his bones were concerned; his ashes were scattered in an undisclosed location. But Einstein's brain was a different matter.

During the autopsy, conducted at Princeton Hospital, a pathologist named Thomas Harvey removed Einstein's brain -- the brain that had given the world such revolutionary thoughts as E=mc², the theory of relativity, an understanding of the speed of light and the idea that led to the completion of the atomic bomb. Harvey held the brain that produced those thoughts in his hands. And then he took it.
Depending on whom you believe, Harvey either did a wonderful thing for science that day, or he's no better than a common grave robber. Einstein had participated in studies during his lifetime to ascertain what might have made his brain different, and at least one biographer claims that Einstein wished for his gray matter to be studied after death [source: Altman]. Others claim that the brain fell under the category of things Einstein wanted cremated, and there was further outrage when it was revealed that another person removed Einstein's eyeballs as a souvenir [source: Paterniti].
I­n some ways, though, Einstein got his wish. No one could come to worship at the relic of his brain, simply because no one except Harvey knew where it was. After Harvey's removal of the brain made news, he secured the permission of one of Einstein's sons to study the brain, with the results to be published in reputable journals. Harvey felt it wouldn't take very long at all to figure out what made Einstein's brain different and special -- surely the brain of such a genius would reveal its secrets quickly. But no studies appeared in the years following Einstein's death, and then Harvey himself, who, again, was merely a pathologist and not a neuroscientist, disappeared with the brain

How Our Brain Works

Every animal you can think of -- mammals, birds, reptiles, fish, amphibians -- has a brain. But the human brain is unique. Although it's not the largest, it gives us the power to speak, imagine and problem solve. It is truly an amazing organ.

The brain performs an incredible number of tasks including the following:

• It controls body temperature, blood pressure, heart rate and breathing.
• It accepts a flood of information about the world around you from your various senses (seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting and touching).
• It handles your physical movement when walking, talking, standing or sitting.
• It lets you think, dream, reason and experience emotions.

All of these tasks are coordinated, controlled and regulated by an organ that is about the size of a small head of cauliflower.
Your brain, spinal cord and peripheral nerves make up a complex, integrated information-processing and control system known as your central nervous system. In tandem, they regulate all the conscious and unconscious facets of your life. The scientific study of the brain and nervous system is called neuroscience or neurobiology. Because the field of neuroscience is so vast -- and the brain and nervous system are so complex -- this article will start with the basics and give you an overview of this complicated organ.
We'll examine the structures of the brain and how each section controls our daily functions, including motor control, visual processing, auditory processing, sensation, learning, memory and emotions.

If you try to make a list of the things you did in the last 15 years, it would probably look like this: three years in junior-high, 20 months with your boyfriend, a year of study in Italy. Forgetting anything? As a matter of fact, you are leaving out the one thing that you spent the most time doing. Sleep. This major time consumer took about five years from the past 15.

While adults spend about one third of their time sleeping, babies and toddlers sleep away half of their early childhood. It cannot be the terrible waste of time that it seems. Or can it be? Embarrassingly, scientists still cannot persuasively point out the biological function of sleep. Sex, eating, and sleeping constitute the triad of basic impulses of human beings. Yet, while the functions of the first two have been obvious for millennia, it is not clear why we crave to spend a third of our life in bed.

Over the past decade, new findings that may lead to the resolution of this conundrum have been accumulating. Many scientists believe that in a few years we will understand not just why we sleep, but also what biochemical mechanisms underlie this odd activity.

Koalas spend up to 20 hours a day sleeping.

The first few hints for the function of sleep came from observations on animals. All mammals sleep, as do birds and even bees. One theory suggests that sleep is a simple protection mechanism, a way to keep animals quiet and still, so that they attract less attention, and thus are less noticeable to predators. This stillness is particularly important when the animal is most vulnerable, which for many animals, is during the dark of night. But comparing sleep patterns of different species suggests that this may be too simplistic an explanation. Opossum, for example, sleep up to 20 hours a day. Giraffes, on the other hand, spend no more than 20 minutes a day sleeping, and don't even bother to recline their cumbersome bodies. Dolphins and whales also spend a very short time sleeping, and continue to swim even as they catch their Zs. Some scientists even claim that dolphins let only half of their brain sleep at a time. This diversity of sleeping patterns implies that sleep is more than just a way of keeping animals quiet. There must be another explanation.

Clearly, sleep is an opportunity to rest. Hence, many theorists have hypothesized that the main purpose of sleep is to enable the muscles and the brain to recuperate after a busy day. But measuring the electric activity of the brain unveils the shortcomings of this theory: A sleeping brain is far from dormant.

When measured using EEG, the electric activity of a brain when asleep is no less hectic than it is when awake. There is a difference, though, between two different phases of sleep. Right after falling asleep, the brain demonstrates slow EEG activity. This stage is called slow wave sleep (SWS). However, after a while, the brain goes into the turmoil of the second stage, which due to its similarity to the brain activity of attentive wakefulness, is known as paradoxical sleep. In this stage, the EEG reveals very fast activity. At the same time, the eyes move rapidly, giving this stage its other famous name -- REM (Rapid Eye Movement) sleep. REM sleep is also the time during which we dream.

A number of fascinating experiments suggest that this jittery second stage is the daily session of memory maintenance and that during this time, the brain reviews and sorts the knowledge that it has encountered during the day. Some of it is discarded and some of it is stored in the appropriate context. According to this theory, sleep is required for learning and memory.

In a few experiments, rats were trained to find their way through a maze while electrodes were recording the activity of their brain. When the rats fell asleep, the brain started to behave oddly. In light of difficulties of getting a clear verbal description from the rats regarding their dreams, we can rely only on the pattern of their brain activity. The rats' brain activity during sleep was highly similar to the activity during the training. The brain seemed to reconstruct the experience of the day. In their dreams, the rats were again chasing the cheese through the maze.

Other experiments supplied more direct evidence that sleep is crucial for learning. Human subjects were trained to identify letters that appeared for a blink of an eye on a computer screen. Then, half of the subjects were sent home to sleep, while the other half were deprived of sleep for the entire night, and only then went home to rest. Two days later when all the subjects were already rested and refreshed, the scientists checked their ability to read the flashing letters. None of the participants were tired, and yet the people who went to sleep right after the training performed much better than the ones who went to sleep a day later. This suggests that the night sleep immediately after the activity was crucial for gaining the most from the training session. Without it, the training was much less effective.

The fact that during their formative years of childhood and adolescence, people sleep much more than during their adulthood, also supports the view that sleeping plays a role in learning. Yet, some scientists claim that this evidence is still weak, and more importantly, that other experiments yield contradicting results. Therefore, they argue, declaring that the mystery of sleep is resolved, and that the main function of sleep is to enhance learning, would be premature.

Only future research can decide this debate. In the mean time, if you are planning to pull an all-nighter before a big test, you may want to reconsider. When you go to sleep your brain may still be studying. Perhaps this night session is as crucial for your success as the learning you do when you are awake.

Key Of Success

Success is everybody’s dream. But what is the key to success? How can you be successful? In my post about defining successful people, I wrote that we should measure success based on how much we give rather than how much we receive. Fortunately, it also works nicely the other way around since those who give more almost always will also receive more.
Based on that, you can see that the more value you give to others, the more successful you will be. So how do you pave your way to success? How do you become more successful? The answer is amazingly simple. Here it is:
The key to success is making yourself as useful as possible to others.
That’s it. Making yourself as useful as possible to others.
If you focus on applying this, others will realize the value they get from you and they will attract more people to come to you. These new people will also realize the value they get from you and they will attract even more people to come to you. The virtuous cycle begins and you are now on your way to success.
With this principle in mind, you should aim at increasing your usefulness to others. How do you do that? Here are some ideas:

1.      Be observant of needs

To be useful to others, you should always be aware of even the slightest clues of needs. The more sensitive you are to the needs of others, the more appreciative people will eventually become. The best scenario is being able to anticipate a need before the other people are even aware of it.

2.      Find solutions to the needs

Now that you are aware of needs, the next step is finding solutions to them. The solutions you offer should be as useful as possible. To be able to do so, there is no other way but to continuously build your own value. It is from the value you have that you could give value to others.

3.      Be proactive to help

Do not wait for the other person to ask for your help. Be proactive. Give your help even before they ask.

4.      Be sincere

What matters is not only the solution you offer, but also the way you deliver it. Being sincere means being glad to help others without expecting anything in return. Make it your joy to give something to others. People can somehow distinguish whether or not you are sincere.

5.      Go the extra mile

Doing the above four steps is good, but add this one if you can: give more than expected. First, give what is expected, and then add a little more. If you do the above four steps people will be appreciative, but if you add this one step they will be impressed.

The Benefit and Danger of Technology

The rapid changes in technology over the last 75 years have created enormous opportunities for education. While some technologies such as the computer were adopted early on, a reluctance to embrace change coupled with a lack of funding has resulted in a continuing dependence on chalkboards and other anachronistic technologies. The extent to which schools adopt new technologies, not surprisingly, often depends on how well they’re funded. It isn’t uncommon for schools that are separated by very little physical distance to be at opposite ends of the technology gap.
Many folks familiar with this scenario understand the inherent lack of fairness in the disparate funding of schools. What many people don’t understand however is that it also threatens the uniquely American ideals of democracy and equality. One of the bedrocks of our democracy is the idea that we’re governed by the electoral choices of a well-informed citizenry. Having equal access to a decent education is the assumption that underlies this premise. But the ways in which rapid advances in technology are adopted have both positive and negative implications for schools and for broader society in general.
Preparing For The Workforce
One of the most positive results of schools embracing new technologies is found when low-income students gain skills they otherwise wouldn’t. The ability to type, use email and execute basic computer functions like Word and Excel are imperative in today’s workforce. When students who have no access to computers at home learn these skills specifically because of technology in the classroom, they have a far greater chance of moving from have-nots to haves in the future. Having technological competence gives them a better chance of success in the workforce and gives them a greater ability and confidence to pursue online education university options.
No Student Left Behind
When classrooms adopt iPads or other tablets in lower grades amongst younger students, the possibility that those students will be left behind in terms of the greater society decreases dramatically. Studies have consistently shown that new technology introduction to younger children provides better results than when introduced at a later age. Even if low-income students have no access to computers at home, the integration of new technology into all aspects of school life ensures that they have greater opportunities going forward.
Handwriting Requirements
There are some arguably negative implications to the adoption of new technologies as well. Some of the most evident for the short term involve dropping long-standing handwriting requirements. Penmanship was dropped from most English classes over the last twenty years and cursive writing requirements are quickly being cut from many programs as well. Depending on one’s perspective, not learning cursive in elementary school may not be the end of the world academically speaking. But advocates of teaching cursive argue that losing cursive is just one more case of technology eroding academic rigor.
Quality of Writing
There is another, lesser known, but reasonable argument against adopting computers across all academic disciplines. Pen and paper often tend to be more conducive to good writing than computer keyboarding. Longhand writing is more likely to result in well-reasoned, nuanced and intricate prose. This may arise from the fact that typing lends itself more easily to abrupt and punchy prose. The staccato quality of typing can work its way into writing. Stylistic arguments aside; a potentially far more worrisome implication for the long term is the increasing technology gap among schools.
Social Class
When the only technology requirements for completing a primary education involved paper, pencils, a slide rule and eventually calculators, the impact technology had in widening the divide between haves and have-nots was minimal. But the technology gap which exists in schools today also functions as a solidifier of social class. If low-income students are unlucky enough to attend schools which can’t fund technology purchases, the chance that they’ll find a way out of a low income life becomes less likely. It’s understandable that if a school can’t afford air conditioning, they’re probably not going to view iPads as a logical expenditure.
The Danger of Making Technology So Critical
The ability to use technologies such as laptops and tablet computers allows students to acquire the same sets of core competencies they’ll need in the workforce. Not acquiring these skill sets is more than an inconvenience. The ability to access information and basic computer literacy can function as a potential stepping-stone out of poverty for many students. If a student graduates high school without at least a rudimentary and working knowledge of new technologies, their future starts looking a lot less bright.
And since many school districts which can’t afford to incorporate technology into the classroom are largely found in less affluent areas, the likelihood of upward social mobility decreases significantly and social classes begin to look a lot more like social castes. The technology gap runs the risk of further cementing social class. This country has always celebrated the ability of Americans to pull themselves up by their own bootstraps. We love it when the underdog makes good. It’s part of our national identity to root for the little guy. But when the little guy is deprived of what are rapidly becoming basic tools of future economic survival, the ability for any effective bootstrap pulling begins to disappear.
Technology’s Impact on the Future
Twenty years ago, someone without computer skills could still expect to find a decent job which, though not providing a huge income, could still support a family. But now, jobs that used to be considered basic blue collar jobs require technological know-how. A car mechanic used to need mechanical aptitude and a good set of wrenches and they were in business. Working in customer service used to require basic telephone skills. But increasingly, even menial entry level jobs require much more computer literacy than what some disadvantaged students are getting in schools. If we want to ensure that more Americans continue to get a legitimate shot at the American Dream, we need to start a national dialogue focused on identifying workable solutions for narrowing the technology gap

How Can Technology Benefit Our Students?

As we move into the 21st century, technology has become more and more important to our society. Computers are becoming more affordable and are depended upon by many people to aid them in their daily lives. Since computers are becoming more affordable to purchase, schools have been able to purchase more computers for their students. As more and more computers are purchased, a growing need for technology education emerges. What is the importance of integrating technology into a student's curriculum? What benefits do our students receive from technology? There are many ways that technology can benefit students.
In an article published by Technology and Learning magazine, interviews were conducted with some leading research experts on how they felt about technology's impact on education. The interviews were all conducted by Judy Salpeter, who is the Editor of the magazine. One of Salpeter's interviews was with Cheryl Lemke, who is the executive director of the Milken Exchange on Education Technology. The Milken Exchange is accelerating a national agenda for technology in schools through increasing public awareness, supporting new designs for teaching and learning, and reflecting on research and practice. Lemke has identified six ways that technology can positively impact schools. She has stated that,

"The question is not if technology will impact the nation's public schools, but rather if that impact will accelerate the educational progress of children and youth, positively or negatively" (Salpeter, 1999).

Lemke says that the first way that technology can benefit students is that it can accelerate, enrich and deepen basic skills. Under the right conditions, students learn faster with more depth of understanding using technology (Salpeter, 1999). David Dwyer is vice president of advanced learning technologies for Computer Curriculum Corporation. He leads the company's Educational Enterprise Group and develops next-generation solutions for the learning, management and communication needs of schools. In an interview with Judy Salpeter (1999), he says that in one study conducted by the University of Michigan, the study compared the use of computers for basic skill instruction with paper and pencil approaches and found increases of 10 to 15 percent in the computer-using group. Another finding that studies showed was an increase in efficiency. It took students 30 percent less time to learn the same things with help from the computer.
Saul Rockman is a consultant on education and technology for corporations, state and federal agencies, and educational organizations. He founded Rockman ET AL in 1990. Rockman ET AL is an independent research and consulting firm specializing in technology and learning. In an interview with Judy Salpeter (1999), he said that,

"students who use the technology for real communication with a real audience are much more capable of talking to adults because they are getting used to it...technology facilitates cooperative learning, encourages new roles for learners and the ability to work independently."

Lemke's second way that technology can positively impact education is that,

"Technology can be a great tool for motivating and engaging students. Brain research shows that if students are engaged, they learn more. If we're able to connect them to real life situations, they're much more interested...what a powerful motivation technology is and what a broad range of skills- scientific analysis, communication skills, problem-solving- are involved." (Salpeter, 1999).

Dwyer agrees. He said that research has shown, "a remarkable improvement in writing fluency when students were able to compose at the computer- they were more engaged and wrote more per minute" (Salpeter, 1999). Dwyer notes that teachers also reported that students wrote more because it was easier for students to write. He said that, "word processing didn't automatically make them write better but they became more engaged in their writing" (Salpeter, 1999). Dwyer also noted that research has found that as students became more fluent at writing, over time, their vocabulary became more descriptive in the types and numbers of different words that they used (Salpeter, 1999).
An important aim in technology education is to "develop positive attitudes towards their peers and understanding the value of working with others" (Stables, 1999). Technology activities have the potential to allow all children to succeed. Children develop respect for each other because they realize that everyone can engage in technological activities. This fosters a nurturing learning environment. Children need opportunities to work on activities that they can succeed at, but still have room to offer them challenges, where they have the safety for risk taking and failure (Stables, 1999).
Lemke's third positive way is that, "Technology in schools can also be a wonderful link to between academics and emerging practices in professional fields" (Salpeter, 1999). Lemke notes that for example, math and science courses are conducted in different ways today than it used to be. She says that,

"Today practicing mathematicians and scientists in many cases are not looking for single answers buy rather a host of answers through the design of models and simulations...Let's prepare our students for their futures by exposing them to the latest field practices" (Salpeter, 1999).

Kay Stables (1999) comments that,

"Once primary teachers become involved in a technology activity, they realize how much they can draw both on their general teaching skills and also on work from other areas such as science, mathematics, and art".

Lemke's fourth positive way that technology can positively impact schools is that it can,

"dramatically increase the viability of students in the work force...workers fluent in technology will make the workplace more effective, increase productivity and help ensure America's competitiveness in a global economy. The time to begin preparing our children for the realities of the new American workplace is now" (Salpeter, 1999).

Preparing children for the future use of technology needs to begin when they're young. It was believed that teaching children skills at a young age was deemed appropriate. Kay Stables (1999), believes differently. She says that,

"There is increasing acceptance that general technological competencies are more appropriate for young children in a rapidly changing technological society than are specific skills. By developing a more generic potential from a young age, this next generation may be more comfortable, confident, and secure in their own capability".

Lemke's fifth way that technology has a positive impact on education is that technology can strengthen teaching. She says that technology is, "a powerful learning tool to add to a teacher's repertoire. It allows teachers to adjust and adapt the system to meet diverse student needs by focusing on student-centered learning" (Salpeter, 1999).
Technology can be a powerful tool for teachers to use, if they know how to use it. Kay Stables (1999), commented that when computer technology first came out, many teachers were confused. They weren't sure if technology meant computers, applied science, or craft work. She says that very few teachers are trained in technology education and recommends four key areas to address to help teachers move forward.

1) Developing an understanding of what technology education is. 2) Helping teachers see how the work they currently do and the experience they have can be adapted to allow technology activities to grow and be added on.
3) Providing teachers with hands-on experience with technology activities and giving teachers a broad range of manageable teaching activities to start from.
4) Providing opportunities for teachers to share their practices and good ideas with each other to build a repertoire of successful activities.

Once teachers have found that they have a competent background in technology education, another concern pops up. How can a teacher fit what he or she has learned into the curriculum? Al Rogers (1999), from the Global School Net Foundation, believes that for teachers to effectively teach students using technology, they have to change their teaching practices and beliefs. The educational system requires teachers to teach a prescribed sequence of information. Today Rogers believes that as we enter the 21st century, he says,

" We need teachers who are able and willing to become side-by-side learners with their students. Teachers who are not afraid to acknowledge, "I don't know", and then can turn around and say, "Let's find out together". These teachers need to know how to use various technologies which can not only answer questions, but create questions as well. We need teachers who understand that learning in today's world is not just a matter of mastering a static body of knowledge, but also being able to discover the rapidly changing ideas about that knowledge itself".

Once teachers are able to accept becoming side-by-side learners alongside their students, technology will become a powerful tool to aid their students' learning.
Finally, Lemke's last point was that, "technology can also be a catalyst for change in schools" (Salpeter, 1999). Lemke goes on to say that,

"The decline in public confidence in America's public schools is due in part to the incompatibility of an educational model developed during the industrial age with the educational requirements of today's information-based society" (Salpeter, 1999).

In an article by James Lerman (1998), he says that "many students drop out of school, mentally or physically because they don't see the connection between real life and schoolwork". Technology can provide that connection between real life and schoolwork. Lemke states that,

"Teachers are realizing that there's more information that they can possibly provide students. Instead they need to put tools into the hands of kids so they know how to ask questions, evaluate sources, hypothesize and communicate effectively" (Salpeter, 1999).

I have always believed that technology can have a positive impact on students if used properly. As a technology coordinator at my school, I have seen how motivated students are when they come up to the computer lab to work on their projects. There are hardly any discipline problems and all of the children are engaged and focused on their work. If only our teachers had more computers available to them in their classrooms, what an impact that would have on the students learning. I truly think that teachers need more technology resources and aids to help them use technology the way it is meant to be used with their students. Many teachers still use the computer only for word processing and for their students to play games on it. There are some teachers however, at my school, who brilliantly use technology to enhance their teaching and further makes learning exciting for their students.
I recently interviewed Wendy Okamoto, a former T3-er and the Computer Teacher/Tech Coordinator at Stevenson Middle School in Oahu. I asked her what the technology program at their school was like. She said that she was responsible for teaching the 6th grade exploratory wheel and the 8th grade Introduction to Computer classes. She also said that each teacher at her school is responsible for developing their own curriculum for their classes. She said that each teacher at her school is responsible for developing their own curriculum for their classes based on the National Educational Technology Standards, which was the foundation for the new Hawaii Educational Technology Content Standards. Stevenson Middle School is scheduled to be networked this school year and each teacher has at least one computer that will be accessible to the Internet.
When I asked her how she felt technology benefits her students, she replied that in the classroom, technology is used as an educational tool to enhance learning, increase productivity, and promote creativity. Examples of projects that they have done in the past include, letter writing, personalized cookbooks, newsletter, and designing T-shirts. Students also use technology to communicate and interact with their peers. Last year, students communicated with a private school on the Windward side via email and chat rooms. Students also use technology to locate, evaluate and collect information to publish web pages.
In conclusion, there are many ways that technology can benefit our students. All it takes is a teacher's desire to learn how technology can be used to enhance their teaching and be open to new ideas. As a first year technology coordinator, I am discovering the wealth of information out there on the Internet- something that as a regular classroom teacher, I've never had the time to sit down and search the web for ideas. I think more classroom teachers need to know the kinds of technology that are available to them. Last year, our school finally put together a school web page. This was the first time that many teachers learned how a web page was put together and discovered the many opportunities that can arise from having a school web page. Therefore I believe that technology has a positive impact on everyone- students as well as teachers- and creates an exciting and challenging atmosphere in any school environment.